Shifting Cultivation
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Home Page > News and Society > Environment > Shifting Cultivation
Shifting Cultivation
Posted: May 29, 2011 |Comments: 0
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INTRODUCTION
Agriculture is the artificial cultivation and processing of animals, plants, fungi and other life forms for food, fibers and other byproducts. Agriculture was the key implement in the rise of sedentary human civilization, whereby farming of domesticated species created food surpluses that nurtured the development of much denser and more stratified societies. Agriculture has played a key role in the development of human civilization. Until the Industrial Revolution, the vast majority of the human population labored in agriculture. Development of agricultural techniques has steadily increased agricultural productivity, and the widespread diffusion of these techniques during a time period is often called an agricultural revolution. A remarkable shift in agricultural practices has occurred over the past century in response to new technologies.
Shifting cultivation is an agricultural system in which plots of land are cultivated temporarily, and then abandoned. This system often involves clearing of a piece of land followed by several years of wood harvesting or farming, until the soil loses fertility. Once the land becomes inadequate for crop production, it is left to be reclaimed by natural vegetation, or sometimes converted to a different long-term cyclical farming practice. Alternatively, shifting cultivation can be said to be a farming system which involves clearance of fresh land for crop growing and after realization of a reduction in crop yields, the farmer moves on to a fresh plot of land. Of these cultivators, many use a practice of slash-and-burn as one element of their farming cycle. Others employ land clearing without any burning, and some cultivators are purely migratory and do not use any cyclical method on a given plot.
Shifting cultivation systems are perceived both by numerous scientists as well as the general public, as primitive, backward, wasteful, unproductive, and exploitative and the cause of widespread environmental degradation. Shifting cultivators are blamed for the destruction of much of the world’s tropical forests, land degradation, atmospheric pollution and global climatic change.
It is one of the oldest methods of resource exploitation. It was developed to replace hunting and gathering. It is a traditional resource management technique developed by colonial communities in Africa, Asia and Latin America. In the tropical developing world, shifting cultivation in its many diverse forms remains a pervasive practice. Shifting cultivation was one of the very first forms of agriculture practiced by humans and its survival into the modern world suggests that it is a flexible and highly adaptive means of production.
THE PRACTICE OF SHIFTING CULTIVATION
In shifting cultivation, fields are cultivated for a relatively short time and allowed to recover, or are fallowed, for a relatively long time. Eventually a previously cultivated field will be cleared of the natural vegetation and plated in crops again. Broadly, shifting cultivation involves three stages: field clearing, growing of crops and abandoning the site. Fields in established and stable shifting cultivation systems are cultivated and fallowed cyclically.
The cyclic shifting cultivation system is carried out in the following sequence:
1. Selecting a forest patch and clearing vegetation and trees.
2. Burning of the vegetation: Small, cut-trunks portion and roots are normally not removed. The herbs, shrubs and twigs and branches are burnt.
3. Sowing/planting of seeds.
4. Continuing cultivation for a few years.
5. Abandoning the cultivated site and shifting to other sites.
6. Returning to the former site and once again practicing shifting cultivation on it.
Characteristics of shifting cultivation include the following:
Clearing of areas of land by fire and cutting of tress
Labour intensive: a lot of manual labour is needed in land clearance to produce crops for a few people (subsistence farming). The human labor utilized is mainly family labour.
Use of simple tools: cultivation in usually done using tools such as digging sticks, hoes, machetes (pangas) and axes.
Production of few crops: mostly starch foods such as cassava, yams, maize, millet and others are grown in the ladings.
When crop yields decline, usually after 2 or 3 years, the patch is abandoned and fresh areas are cleared. Cultivation may eventually return to the original plot.
Little attention is given to the crops until the sprouts mature, for example, little use of manure is practiced.
Shifting cultivation is a subsistence form of agriculture with no surplus crop for sale which means that production is only for consumption and not for commercial purposes.
Short period of crops occupying alternate with long fallow period.
There is no permanent settlement as farmers keep on shifting from one place to another.
There is no individual ownership of land. The land belongs to the whole community (communal land).
It is a kind of farming practice that is mostly carried out in sparsely populated regions/areas.
Occasionally but not always, there is a shift of homestead
Rotation of fields rather than crops
Normally, fallow fields are not unproductive. During the fallow period, shifting cultivators use the successive vegetation species widely for timber for fencing and construction, firewood, thatching, ropes, clothing, tools, carrying devices and medicines. It is common for fruit and nut trees in fallows to be planted in fallow fields to the extent that parts of some fallows are in fact orchards. Soil-enhancing shrub or tree species may be planted or protected from slashing or burning in fallows. Many of these species have been shown to fix nitrogen. Fallows commonly contain plants that attract birds and animals and are important for hunting. But perhaps most importantly, tree fallows protect soil against physical erosion and draw nutrients to the surface from deep in the soil profile.
The relationship between the time the land is cultivated and the time it is fallowed are critical to the stability of shifting cultivation systems. These parameters determine whether or not the shifting cultivation system as a whole suffers a net loss of nutrients over time. A system in which there is a net loss of nutrients with each cycle will eventually lead to a degradation of resources unless actions are taken to arrest the losses. In some cases soil can be irreversibly exhausted (including erosion as well as nutrient loss) in less than a decade.
No universal optimum relationship exists between the length of the cropping period and the length of the fallow period. In favourable agricultural environments, cropping periods can be longer and fallow periods shorter, than in less favourable agricultural environments. In favourable environments soil conditions at the beginning of a cropping cycle will be better and fallow successional stages will proceed faster.
It has generally been established that the longer a field is cropped, the greater the loss of soil organic matter, the reduction in the cation-exchange-capacity and in nitrogen and phosphorus, the greater the increase in acidity, the more likely soil porosity and infiltration capacity is reduced and the greater the loss of seeds of naturally occurring plant species from soil seed banks.
In a stable shifting cultivation system, the fallow is long enough for the natural vegetation to recover to the state that it was in before it was cleared, and for the soil to recover to the condition it was in before cropping began. During fallow periods soil temperatures are lower, wind and water erosion is much reduced, nutrient cycling becomes closed again, nutrients are extracted from the subsoil, soil fauna increases, acidity is reduced, soil structure, texture and moisture characteristics improve and seed banks are replenished.
If the fallow period is shortened there will be less time in which the soil recovery processes and vegetation successions can take place. The length of fallow period required to prevent net loss of nutrients will again depend on the quality of the environment, which will in turn, determine the rate at which recovery occurs. But sooner or later, if the fallow period continues to be reduced, an observable change will occur in the fallow vegetation. Secondary forest may be reduced to shorter, thinner stemmed, fewer, woody bush or jungle species, bush may be reduced to scrub and tall grasses and scrub and tall grasses may be reduced to short grasses. Less directly observable, but nevertheless critical changes will also be occurring in the soil.
Changes in environmental conditions that happen subsequent to either a lengthening of the cropping period or a shortening of the fallow period often result in a fall in crop yields. Nevertheless, even in the most favourable environments, it is likely that if the cropping period is extended beyond a certain point, the fallow conditions required for an adequate recovery of soils and vegetation will be jeopardized.
The length of fallow period varies from place to place depending on the pressure on the land. In the past when population pressure was low and consumption was less complex every shifting cultivator possessed adequate land for his/her own needs. In many parts of Europe cropping periods were usually one year but were extended to 2 to 3 years on very favourable soils. Fallow periods were between 20 to 40 years. In India, the earlier 25-30 year cycle of shifting cultivation on a particular land has reduced to 2-3 years now but it is usually 3-10 years. This is often a short time to allow regeneration of forest vegetation.
ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACTS OF SHIFTING CULTIVATION
Shifting cultivation contributes to both minor and serious environmental impacts which include the following:
Degradation of soil (land) quality and productivity:
The longer a field is cropped, the greater the loss of soil organic matter, the reduction in the cation-exchange-capacity and in nitrogen and phosphorus, the greater the increase in acidity, the more likely soil porosity and infiltration capacity is reduced and the greater the loss of seeds of naturally occurring plant species from soil seed banks. Clearing of trees and the permanent cultivation of fragile soils in a tropical environment with little attempt to replace lost nutrients may cause rapid degradation of the fragile soils. Also, although burning initially helps to increase the fertility of the soil, the additional ash rich in minerals also destroys vast quantities of organic matter and bacteria hence affecting the soil forming processes and soil micro organisms.
Global warming:
Shifting cultivators are blamed for atmospheric pollution and global climate change. Burning of forests contributes greatly to the addition of carbon dioxide (CO2) and water vapour (the major products from combustion of biomass) to the atmosphere. Clearing of forests and vegetation removes the carbon dioxide sink which has been absorbed from the atmosphere by plants leading to an increase in the concentration of greenhouse gases, in particular carbon dioxide, in the atmosphere which leads to global warming and eventually global climate change.
Deforestation and desertification:
Shifting cultivation is characterized by clearing of forests and vegetation through fire or slashing (cutting) down trees to obtain bare land for farming. This practice leads to severe levels of deforestation which eventually lead to desertification. All the ecological and economic values and services of trees are lost. Deforestation exposes lands (soils) to the agents of erosion, destroys habitat of organisms, disturbs the hydrological cycle and causes loss of biodiversity. According to the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), the estimated rate of deforestation in South East Asia in 1990 was 34,000km2 per year (FAO 1990, quoted in Potter 1993). In Indonesia alone it was estimated that 13,100km2 per year were being lost, 1,680km2 per year in Sumatra and 3,770km2 from Kalimantan, of which 1,440km2 were due to the fires of 1982 to 1983.
Land degradation:
The productivity of land deteriorates quickly in areas where shifting cultivation is practiced. In India, the people in the eastern and north-eastern regions practice shifting cultivation on hill slopes and 85% of the total cultivation in north-east India is by shifting cultivation. Due to increasing requirement for cultivation of land, the cycle of cultivation followed by leaving land fallow has reduced from 25-30 years to 2-3 years. Earlier the fallow cycle was of 20-30 year duration, thereby permitting the land to return to natural condition. Due to reduction of the cycle to 2-3 years the resilience of ecosystems has broken down and the land is increasingly deteriorating. Soil erosion and loss of soil fertility are the notable impacts caused by shifting cultivation.
Loss of biodiversity:
The indigenous biodiversity has been affected to a large extent. Frequent shifting from one plot of land to another has affected the ecology of these regions. The area under natural forests has declined; the fragmentation of habitat, local disappearance of native species and invasion by exotic weeds and other plants are some of the ecological consequences of shifting agriculture. Burning of forests destroys several species of fauna and flora which leads to extinction of some species. The secondary forests created by shifting cultivation are much less diverse than the primary forests.
Burning of the biomass (forests) causes nearly all of the nitrogen and sulphur from the incinerated vegetation to be lost to the atmosphere and yet phosphorus, potassium, calcium and magnesium increase in the soil. Also the burning and cultivation leads to rapid layer (top layer), that is, a reduction in the rate of mineral return to the soil as less dead matter litters the soil surface. Therefore there is a general decline in both organic matter and inorganic nutrients into the soil. Burning and cultivation further increases replacing of the massive system of the fallow periods by a shallow and weak root system of the crops. This may tend to increase erosion of soil nutrients.
Proliferation of weeds:
Land preparation and cultivation also creates conditions favourable for the gradual proliferation of crop weeds, pests and diseases. Before pre-cultivation there is competition for light near the ground level because of forest canopy and undergrowth. These conditions exclude weeds and other less competitive species from land. After clearing weeds are more demanding of light, less competitive but with aggressive growth rate begin to invade cultivated land. In the first cropping phase, weed densities are low, but they increase rapidly during the subsequent cropping phases.
In shifting cultivation, often the same species of crops are repeatedly plated and these may contribute to the specific crop weeds, pests and diseases over a period of time.
Effect on hydrological cycle:
Deforestation resulting from shifting cultivation interferes with the rain cycle. Vegetation plays a significant role in the rain cycle. Deforestation limits rain formation due to the limited evapotranspiration as one of the primary sources for water vapour fro cloud formation. The water catchment areas also dry out when the forests are cleared. Drought is the resulting crisis.
Pests and diseases:
Because of movement of seeds and seedlings from one area to another shifting cultivation causes the spread of pests and diseases from one area to another.
Erosion and siltation of water bodies:
Due to clearing for land from the protective cover of trees, the land is left bare and more susceptible to the forces of erosion. The materials that are eroded can be swept into nearby water bodies leading to their siltation.
Disasters:
Landslides, for instance, are likely to occur due to shifting cultivation practice on slopes. Protection and repair of drainage basis for conservation of ecological resources including water need large amounts of financial input. The shifting cultivation area normally receive moderate to high rainfall. Due to splash forces from rain drops, the erosion of previous topsoil occurs. Thus the major factors which influence the rate of soil erosion are the rainfall, the topography of the terrain and the kind of vegetation and soil conditions.
Poor sanitation:
Due to the nature of shifting cultivation (moving from one place to another) homes tend to be of a temporary nature and without adequate sanitation system. This leads to the human occupants practicing poor sanitation in their immediate surroundings and can also have effects on their health. For instance, using nearby water sources for washing, defecating as well as for consumption.
CONTROLLING SHIFTING CULTIVATION: INITIATIVES AND STRATEGIES
Although shifting cultivation is a non-viable resource utilization practice, local populations are still clinging to this primitive practice to sustain themselves and their families mainly due to non-availability of timely employment avenues. No matter where you go you find that primitive agriculture was carried out at the expense of forests. Shifting cultivators are blamed for much of the destruction of the world’s tropical forests, land degradation, atmospheric pollution and global climate change.
It follows therefore that effective measures need to be put in place to mitigate the environmental loss and provide other alternatives of livelihood to the local population who depend entirely on shifting cultivation. Environmental management options for shifting cultivation include the following:
Agroforestry projects:
Agroforestry is the practice of carrying out crop farming (and even animal husbandry) and planting of trees in the same piece of land (farm). This practice minimizes greatly the impacts of shifting cultivation on that environment. This approach has been practiced in many regions of the world. In India, for example, and agroforestry project known as Nagaland Environment Protection for Economic Development (NEPED) funded by the Canadian International Development Agency (CIDA) through the Indian-Canadian Environment Facility (ICEF) was initiated in 1995 to make Nagaland self-sufficient in agroforestry.
Under this project experienced government officials convince the villagers to set aside 6 hectares of land, known as a test plot, over two-and-a-half years. The owner of this plot of land is required to plant 1,200 seedlings, along with usual crops, under supervision of the village council and a project team. These test plots become open school-cum-research stations, as well as demonstration plots to teach new technology.
Providing employment opportunities:
Providing employment opportunities and income generation on a regular basis through proper utilization of the land resources, that is, by equitable distribution of waste land among the local communities. The government should pump in sufficient resources for proper reclamation and development of the wasteland through agro-forestry and silvi-pasture practices.
By encouraging cooperative efforts for carrying out forest-based activities such as basket making, rope making, cane furniture processing of minor forest produce, honey collection, et cetera, have to be made commercially viable by providing proper marketing facilities. This will not only discourage locals from practicing shifting cultivation but will also help them monetarily.
By forming Village Forest Committees for the protection and development of the degraded forests. These committees by providing suitable incentives to the locals, after the time of harvest can divert some of the locals away from the shifting cultivation. Generating employment opportunities during the lean season of forestry operations will also prevent locals from shifting to other areas.
By ensuring implementation of total literacy campaign; this due to remoteness and un-supportive attitude of locals, has not been successful. For educating tribal women and children, services of various non-Governmental organizations and voluntary agencies, besides the regular Government machinery, are on required sustainable basis rather than with a targeted approach.
Eco-development plan for areas under shifting cultivation: The ecosystems of the regions with shifting cultivation practice have to be made ecologically sustainable. Formulating an eco-development plan for the region for environmental sustainability could consider completely replacing agricultural practice with farm forestry. Agricultural practices are sometimes at the cost of loss of biodiversity resources. Estimates indicate that one unit of energy in agronomic production costs loss of greater energy from the forests. This strategy would work best in the mountain ecosystems of these regions with shifting cultivation practice.
It was observed through examining a hill district of central Himalaya that collection of revenues from forest resources and milk products for purchasing food grains is more economical than cultivation some land for food grains. Per unit produce from forests is much higher than agriculture.
CONCLUSION
Shifting cultivation currently supports between 300-500 million people worldwide. This cultivation is a way of life that is being considered outdated with the growing concern for nature conservation and protection of forests. Shifting cultivators are being looked upon as a major cause of tropical deforestation and world attention is focused on ‘slash-and-burn’ practices in the tropical region. Organizations such as World Bank, FAO and others have recommended agro-forestry, and other modes of permanent agriculture, as alternatives to shifting cultivation. However, it must be noted that when land is allowed a sufficiently long fallow period (as it was in the past) to permit forest regeneration and soil fertility restoration then the practice can be sustainable. Unfortunately, due to current population pressures leading to high demand of food and other resources, it is no longer practical or possible to let land lie idle for a sufficient amount of time and this leads to over cultivation of the land and hence it’s degradation. The cooperation of village people, voluntary organizations, and the officials of all relevant government departments should contribute towards development of environmentally sustainable management of resources affected by shifting cultivation.
REFERENCES
Bartlett, H. H. (1956) Fire, primitive agriculture, and grazing in the tropics. In Man’s Role in Changing the Face of the Earth (Ed, Thomas, W. L.) The University of Chicago Press, Chicago and London,
Martins, P. J. And Nautiyal, J.C. A case study in the central Himalayas, paper presented at IUFRO Workshop, New Delhi, 1987.
World Resource Institute (1996). World Resource, Oxford University Press, Oxford.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shifting_cultivation
http://www.ias.ac.in/currsci/nov25/articles12.htm
http://www.fao.org
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About the Author:
Name: Haykal Dahir Omar
Natiionality: Somali
Marial Status: Single
Sex: Male
Birth: 2/3/1985
Occupation: Student, Becholar Of Environmental Science
University: Kampala International University
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Name: Haykal Dahir OmarNatiionality: SomaliMarial Status: SingleSex: MaleBirth: 2/3/1985Occupation: Student, Becholar Of Environmental ScienceUniversity: Kampala International University
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